LIBRARY
As Sir Frances Bacon once said, "Knowledge is power." It is in that spirit, that Making a Difference Canada is committed to providing up-to-the-minute information related to sexual assault as it relates to different disciplines, communities and individuals.
Some of this information is restricted to members only (indicated by the key icon  ), so if you see something you would like to read and are not a member, please register now.
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Sexual Assault Victim Service Worker Handbook: Information and Resources for Victim Services Workers.
British Columbia Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General.
January, 2007
This handbook touches on the social context and dynamics of sexual assault and addressed the needs of different communities when they seek support after a sexual assault. It covers the range of societal responses to sexual assault, eg legislation, policy, services, community coordination, and gives an overview of victim services, describing rape trauma syndrome and the role of the victim service worker. It also examines a survivor’s urgent need for safety and support. It describes the service worker’s role at the hospital and the justice process from police reporting to post-sentencing issues. |
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The Impact of Negative Social Reactions on the Disclosure of Rape
Ahrens, C. American Journal of Community Psychology. 2006, November
The authors examine how negative reactions from friends or family to disclosure may cause a victim/survivor to entirely stop speaking about the experience. The findings indicate that victims may be silenced when disclosure recipients fail to validate the experience of sexual assault or the status of victim. Disclosure recipients thus play an important role in the way victims interpret their experiences. |
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Minimizing and Preventing Secondary Wounding in the Legal System |
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The Impact of Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) Program Services on Law Enforcement Investigational Practices: A Mediational Analysis. Campbell, Bybee, Kelley, Dworkin, Patterson, Criminal Justice and Behavior December, 2011
In this study, the authors analyzed 352 sexual assault police reports to identify law enforcement investigatory efforts associated with SANE involvement in the case. Forensic exam of the victim was associated with shorter police reports ad consultation with other professionals. When SANEs performed a suspect exam, the cases were 5 times more likely to be referred to a prosecutor than cases without the exam and the presence of a SANE trained member of the investigation team was associated with a greater likelihood of resolving inconsistencies between the victim and suspects accounts. The presence of SANEs may positively affect law enforcement decisions to investigate and prosecute. |
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Police decision making in sexual assault cases: Predictors of suspect identification and arrest Taska, Rodriguez, Spohn, Koss. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2012
The authors of this paper examine the legal and extralegal factors that influence whether police identify and arrest a suspect. Police exercise considerable discretion in investigation and decisions to arrest, particularly with regards to sexual assault, due to the frequent absence of witnesses. The authors found that in 49% of cases, police officers reported that a victim lacked credibility. Police were significantly more likely to identify a suspect when forensic evidence was available; police case files often noted victim’s reluctance or refusal to undergo the forensic examination. Police were 9.1 times more likely to make an arrest when the victim was assaulted by a stranger than in cases involving an acquaintance/relative, controlling for whether there was an identified suspect... |
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Regret and police reporting among individuals who have experienced sexual assault. Marchetti. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 2012
The purpose of the study is to describe decisional regret connected to sexual assault reporting among victims who have experienced an assault in the past five years. Those who experienced a weight change after the assault, perhaps due to anxiety or other negative emotions, were more likely to feel regret about their reporting decision. Victims who were assaulted by someone they knew were more likely not to report the assault, but also more likely to regret not doing so. Those who sought professional help after the assault were more likely to feel less regret about their reporting decision. Overall, those who reported their decision to the police felt less regret about the decision than those who did not report the assault.
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The Impact of Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) Program Services on Law Enforcement Investigational Practices: A Mediational Analysis. Campbell, Bybee, Kelley, Dworkin, Patterson, Criminal Justice and Behavior December, 2011
In this study, the authors analyzed 352 sexual assault police reports to identify law enforcement investigatory efforts associated with SANE involvement in the case. Forensic exam of the victim was associated with shorter police reports ad consultation with other professionals. When SANEs performed a suspect exam, the cases were 5 times more likely to be referred to a prosecutor than cases without the exam and the presence of a SANE trained member of the investigation team was associated with a greater likelihood of resolving inconsistencies between the victim and suspects accounts. The presence of SANEs may positively affect law enforcement decisions to investigate and prosecute. |
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Police decision making in sexual assault cases: Predictors of suspect identification and arrest Taska, Rodriguez, Spohn, Koss. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2012
The authors of this paper examine the legal and extralegal factors that influence whether police identify and arrest a suspect. Police exercise considerable discretion in investigation and decisions to arrest, particularly with regards to sexual assault, due to the frequent absence of witnesses. The authors found that in 49% of cases, police officers reported that a victim lacked credibility. Police were significantly more likely to identify a suspect when forensic evidence was available; police case files often noted victim’s reluctance or refusal to undergo the forensic examination. Police were 9.1 times more likely to make an arrest when the victim was assaulted by a stranger than in cases involving an acquaintance/relative, controlling for whether there was an identified suspect... |
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Regret and police reporting among individuals who have experienced sexual assault. Marchetti. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 2012
The purpose of the study is to describe decisional regret connected to sexual assault reporting among victims who have experienced an assault in the past five years. Those who experienced a weight change after the assault, perhaps due to anxiety or other negative emotions, were more likely to feel regret about their reporting decision. Victims who were assaulted by someone they knew were more likely not to report the assault, but also more likely to regret not doing so. Those who sought professional help after the assault were more likely to feel less regret about their reporting decision. Overall, those who reported their decision to the police felt less regret about the decision than those who did not report the assault. |
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Police Policy and Practice on Sexual Assault Against Young Women
Youth Alliance Report, Supported by METRAC (Metropolitan Action Committee on Violence Against Women and Children). October, 2011
This research focuses on improving the system as it relates to police policy and practice on sexual assault against young women. |
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The Impact of Detectives' Manner of Questioning on Rape Victims' Disclosure
Patterson, D. Violence Against Women. 2012, January 11
The authors examine the factors that contribute to the prosecution or non-prosecution of rape cases. They find that a gentler method of questioning leads to stronger victim statements and an increased likelihood that the case will be sent for prosecution. They examine the victim’s perception of the detective’s questioning technique and how this perceived manner of questioning influences victim disclosure... |
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The Linkage Between Secondary Victimization by: Law Enforcement and Rape Case Outcomes.
Patterson, D. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2010, March 17
The author investigates why some victims have negative experiences with law enforcement and why some do not. Victims whose cases were ultimately prosecuted had situations viewed as credible by the justice service and were more likely to report feeling believed, cared about and supported by detectives. However, these results varied depending on the relationship of the victim to the attacker... |
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Factors associated with sexual assault and time to presentation,
McCall-Hosenfeld et al. Preventive Medicine. 2009
This article investigates which factors associated with sexual assault affect the time it takes for a survivor to seek medical attention. |
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Why Women Don't Report Sexual Assault to the Police: The Influence of Psychosocial Variables and Traumatic Injury, Jones, Alexander, Wynn, Rossman, Dunnuck. Journal or Emergency Medicine. 2009
The authors of this study examine the reasons behind women’s decision to report or not to report a sexual assault to the police. |
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Cognitive Behavioural Veracity Assessment |
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Cognitive Interview Technique |
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Interview Process – Arrest Script |
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Sexual Assault Investigations:Sources of Evidence |
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Police Classification of Sexual Assault Cases as Unfounded |
Forensic Medical:
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Care of the Sexually Assaulted Woman. Wadsworth, Van Order, The Journal for Nurse Practitioners. 2012
Sexually Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) programs may be the best avenue of care for the sexually assaulted woman. SANE’s can provide specialized care and are trained in forensic evidence collection. However, some women may choose to be examined by their nurse practitioner (NP), This piece offers guidelines and advice to help NPs offer supportive and empowering care for sexual assault victims. NPs should remember the comprehensive exam to check for injury, postexposure prophylaxis for STIs and potentially HIV prophylactics, as well as emergency contraception if within the time frame. |
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Health Care Based Interventions for Women Who Have Experienced Sexual Violence. A Review of the Literature. Martin, Young, Billings, Bross, Trauma, Violence & Abuse. 2007
The authors found few publications that focused on health care services for female sexual assault survivors, despite the high prevalence of sexual assault globally. Of the studies and publications that do exist, more are in the United States. Clinicians that are trained to address sexual assault survivors provide better care than those not trained, yet few clinicians have received such training. The authors underscore the importance of SANEs and the idea that patients generally prefer a care program that involves medication and counseling. The authors also found only one program that offered abortion as part of treatment. They also found that most patients do not complete their HIV prophylaxis because of side effects. |
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The Impact of a Sexual Assault/Domestic Violence Program on ED Care. Sampsel, Szobota. Joyce, Graham, Pickett. . Journal of Emergency Nursing. 2009
This is a case study of 2 emergency departments in Kingston, Ontario, before and after a Sexual Assault/Domestic Violence Program was put in place. After the implementation of the program, the number of sexual assault patients doubled and the median time to clinical evaluation was lower. The patients that reported after the implementation were less likely to report vaginal/anal penetration and had fewer genital injuries, which suggests that they were victims of less stereotypical sexual assault. It may be that the implementation of the program has encouraged more reporting of sexual assault, even when it doesn’t fit the stereotype.
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Prosecution of Adult Sexual Assault Cases: A Longitudinal Analysis of the Impact of a Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner Program. Campbell, Patterson, Bybee, Violence Against Women, 2012.
The authors examine whether the implementation of a SANE program increased the likelihood that sexual assault cases would be investigated and prosecuted. They compared adult sexual assault cases treated in a county hospital for the 5 years prior to the implementation of the SANE program, and those treated by that program for the first 7 years after its implementation. Results indicated that there was a significant increase in cases that reached the latter and final stages of prosecution after the program implementation. |
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Use of forensic science in investigating crimes of sexual violence: Contrasting its theoretical potential with empirical realities. Johnson, Peterson, Sommers, Baskin, Violence Against Women, 2012.
This study seeks to contrast the theoretical potential of forensic evidence with the role it actually plays in criminal justice processing. Forensic evidence was a significant predictor of arrest, however the evidence collected was rarely examined prior to arrest. The DA was 5 times more likely to charge a case with laboratory examined forensic evidence than without, but forensic evidence was not significantly related to conviction or sentence severity. Most rape (80% in this study) is committed by an acquaintance/family member/friend of the victim. Suspects often cite consent as a defence and do not deny sexual interaction with the victim, so forensic identifying evidence may be unnecessary in many situations. |
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Modelling the Effects of Victim Behavior and Moral Character on Prosecutors’ Charging Decisions in Sexual Assault cases.
Beichner, Spohn. Violence and Victims, 2012.
The authors seek to determine if certain behaviours or characteristics have more influence on charging decisions than others. Inviting the suspect to her residence had a negative impact on charging decisions in simple and aggravated rape cases. Alcohol use at the time of the incident and existence of a prior criminal record only affected charging in cases of simple rape. Stereotypes about victims’ character and behaviour only come into play with regards to charging decisions in cases of simple rape. The findings may indicate that when deciding to press charges, prosecutors consider the way judges and jurors will perceive a woman’s behaviour.
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Factors associated with suspected drug facilitated sexual assault, Du Mont, MacDonald, Rotbard, Asllani, Bainbridge, Cohen: CMAJ Research, 2009 |
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Drug-facilitated sexual assault Butler, Welch: CMAJ Research, 2009 |
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Suspected Drugging in Surprising Number of Sexual Assault Cases, Jodi Salem, 2009 |
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Factors associated with suspected drug facilitated sexual assault, Du Mont, MacDonald, Rotbard, Asllani, Bainbridge, Cohen: CMAJ Research, 2009 |
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Drug-facilitated sexual assault Butler, Welch: CMAJ Research, 2009 |
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Suspected Drugging in Surprising Number of Sexual Assault Cases, Jodi Salem, 2009 |
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The Role of Victim and Perpetrator Intoxication on Sexual Assault Outcomes,Testa, Vanzile-Tamsen, Livingston: Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 2004
This study focuses on the level of alcohol consumed by perpetrator and victim and the level of physical violence associated with the sexual assault. |
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The Roles of Victim and Offender Alcohol Use in Sexual Assaults: Results from National Violence against Women Survey, Brecklin, Ullman: Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 2002
This study finds that offender drinking is associated with completion of the rape, but not significantly connected to physical injury of the victim. |
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Alcohol-involved rapes: are they more violent?, Abbey et al: Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2002
The authors seek to determine the links between alcohol consumption and violence levels of sexual assaults. |
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Alcohol and drug use by rapists and their victims, Rodenas, Osuna, Luna: Medical Law. 1989
This article seeks to examine the links between alcohol consumption and rape. |
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Alcohol and Rape in Winnipeg, 1966-1975, Johnson, Gibson, Linden: Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 1978
The authors seek to shed light on the rapes committed by perpetrator under the influence of alcohol. They also provide data on levels of alcohol in victims as well. |
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Drug Summary (Kathleen Soltys and Kathleen Janzen) |
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Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault Investigative and Prosecution Guideline |
Survivors:
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To Tell or Not to Tell: The impact of Disclosure on Sexual Assault Survivor’s Recovery.
Ahrens, Stansell, Jennings. Violence and Victims, 2010.
The authors of this study sought to identify patterns of disclosure among sexual assault victims, the differences in how the disclosure patterns unfold, and the outcomes on physical and mental health. They identify four disclosure patterns: non-disclosers, slow starters, crisis disclosers- those who disclosed immediately but then stopped disclosing, and on-going disclosers. Non-disclosers were more likely to have experienced a non-stereotypical assault and not to initially consider it to be rape. Slow starters disclosed to fewer police or medical personnel than on-going disclosers, and also received negative reactions less often than crisis disclosers. Non-disclosers experience more depression and stress than the other groups. Negative disclosure reactions may impact the health of victims more than disclosure itself... |
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What Would MacGyver Do? The Meaning(s) of Resistance and Survival.
Jordan, J. Violence Against Women. 2005
The author reports on her in- depth interviews with victims of a New Zealand serial rapist in an attempt to demonstrate the different forms that resistance and survival can take for different women. The interviews indicate that each woman resisted in unique ways, from pretending to be unconscious to attempting to reason with or fight the rapist... |
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The Voice of Date Rape by Janet Goldblatt |
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From the Inside: What we can learn from rape survivors by Anne Ream |
General:
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Health and sexual outcomes of women who have experienced forced or coercive Sex. Jozkowsi, Sanders, Women and Health, 2012.
The authors of this study seek to examine the relationship between women’s experiences of sexual force and/or coercion either by one person and by multiple people, and the women’s negative health outcomes. The authors also explore the relationship between experiences of coercion and negative sexual variables. They find that women who reported forced/coerced sex were 1.56 times more likely to report negative health outcomes than women who not had such experience(s). The relationship between sexual coercion and negative sexual variables is most connected to anxiety and unpleasant feelings during sex as well as generally feeling sexually unattractive. The authors suggest that health care providers may find it useful to address past issues of sexual coercion with their patients. |
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Factors Associated with the Sexual Assault of Students: An Exploratory Study of Victims Treated at Hospital Based Sexual Assault Treatment Centres.
Du Mont, Chertkow, MacDonald, Asllani, Bainbridge, Rotbard, Cohen. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 1 June 2012.
The objectives of this study were to provide a profile of student sexual assault victims, and to compare student victims with non-students victims to find possible factors associated with student sexual assault. One-third of victims reporting sexual assault at hospital based treatment centres in Ontario were students... |
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Analysis of 418 cases of sexual assault, Grossin, Sibille, Lorin de la Grandmaison, Banasr, Brion, Durigon: Forensic Science International, 2003
This study examines characteristics of victim, perpetrator and assault according to the amount of time between assault and victim’s presentation for examination. |
Myths and Stereotypes
Trauma
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“I have heard horrible stories...” : Rape Victim Advocates’ Perception of Revictimization of Rape Victims by the Police and Medical System.
Maier , Violence Against Womene. July 2012
This study seeks to shed light on the perspectives of rape victim advocates through interviews with 58 advocates in 5 centers across the East Coast of the US. The advocates generally attribute much power to the legal and medical system to revictimize rape victims. 64 percent of advocates stated that police, the medical system or both revictimized rape victims. This revictimization occurs through invasive questioning, insensitivity, victim-blaming, and a refusal to proceed with criminal investigation. The institutional culture of medical and police services must change to treat sexual assault survivors more responsively. |
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Secondary Wounding |
Youth
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Adolescent Victims of Sexual Assault, Muram, Hostetler, Jones, Speck: Journal of Adolescent Health, 1995
The authors study the differences between female adolescent victims of sexual assault and their adult counterparts. The study finds that adolescents are more likely to be assaulted by someone they know but are less likely to sustain injury. |
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Intentional Injuries among children and adolescents in Massachusetts, Guyer, Lescohier, Gallagher, Hausman, Azzara: The New England Journal of Medicine,1989
The authors examine the extent of intentional injuries in a population of Massachusetts’ children and adolescents. |
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Young Women, Girls and Sexual Violence |
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Adolescent Victims of Sexual Assault, Muram, Hostetler, Jones, Speck: Journal of Adolescent Health, 1995
The authors study the differences between female adolescent victims of sexual assault and their adult counterparts. The study finds that adolescents are more likely to be assaulted by someone they know but are less likely to sustain injury. |
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Intentional Injuries among children and adolescents in Massachusetts, Guyer, Lescohier, Gallagher, Hausman, Azzara: The New England Journal of Medicine,1989
The authors examine the extent of intentional injuries in a population of Massachusetts’ children and adolescents. |
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Young Women, Girls and Sexual Violence |
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Taking a Critical Look at Youth Relationships |
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 ► Most sexual assault victims have little faith in justice system: survey
Halifax: May, 2013: A majority of sexual assault victims have little to no confidence in the police, the courts or the criminal justice system, according to a new government survey that echoes what advocates have been saying for years...
► Victims of Crime Research Digest features A Survey of Survivors of Sexual Assault.
May 7, 2013: The article summarizes the findings of a study that examined the experiences of male and female survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA) and adult sexual assault (ASA) from various demographic backgrounds across Canada...
► Check Out an Innovative Sexual Assault Photo Project
February 1, 2013: Project Unbreakable was created in October of 2011 by Grace Brown. Grace works with survivors of sexual assault, photographing them holding a poster with a quote from their attacker...
► "Engaging Diverse Communities" Webinar now Available Online.
February 1, 2013:The recording and slides are now avaiable.
► New Book: Gender, Culture, Religion: Tackling some difficult questions
Calgary, AB: February 1, 2013: From Heather MacIntosh, Program Director, Sheldon Chumir Foundation for Ethics in Leadership - the Foundation has released a book entitled “Gender, Culture, Religion: Tackling some difficult questions”...
► Making a Difference Canada lends its voice
PEI: February 1, 2013:Making a Difference Canada, led by David O'Brien, a Crown with the PEI team, prepared and submitted a letter to the Senate Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs highlighting a resolution passed that endorses the maintenance of the current Criminal Code of Canada provisions protecting the privacy interests of complainants in sexual offence prosecutions...
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MYTH 1: Most rapes are committed by strangers.
FACT: More often than not, sexual assault is perpetrated by a family member, relative, friend or acquaintance. In fact, in 64% of reported cases the victim knew the accused.
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MYTH 2: People sometimes say "no", whey they really mean "yes".
FACT: No means NO, regardless of the circumstance. Also, if someone says "yes" under duress it is not consent—consent must be given voluntarily.
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MYTH 3: Men can't be raped.
FACT: Many men don't report their sexual assault, so statistics are limited. However, of the assaults that are reported, approximately 15.7% of them involve male victims.
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MYTH 4: She must have somehow "asked for it."
FACT: This is often how the attacker justifies his behavior. What ‘type of woman' she is, what her occupation is, or how a woman dresses or acts, are irrelevant. No one asks to be raped.
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MYTH 5: Women who feel guilty or vindictive often lie about being raped.
FACT: Rarely are false reports of sexual assault made. The truth is, sexual assault is a greatly under-reported crime, especially if the survivor knows her (or his) attacker.
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MYTH 6: Certain types of women are "unrapeable."
FACT: Regardless of a woman's profession or sexual practices, she can still be sexually assaulted. If consent isn't given willingly it is rape. Rape is not about the sex, it is an act of dominance and control.
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MYTH 7: Women can't be assaulted by husbands or boyfriends.
FACT: According to the law, a woman has the right to say no to her significant other. Again, it's about willing consent. If it's not given, it's sexual assault.
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MYTH 8: Carrying some form of protection can prevent sexual assault.
FACT: Maybe. Maybe not. But telling someone that carrying mace or keys between their fingers, etc could prevent an attack only adds to a survivor's sense of guilt and self-blame.
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MYTH 9: Rape is a crime of passion.
FACT: In over 70% of the cases, rape is a premeditated act of VIOLENCE, and has nothing to do with passion. The vast majority of rapists are motivated by power, anger, and control, not sexual gratification.
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MYTH 10: People who are intoxicated or on drugs are willing to participate in any kind of sexual activity.
FACT: Drinking or taking drugs does not imply consent. In fact, alcohol and drugs can render a person incapable of consent—and no consent equals assault.
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